Summary of “An Historical Preface to Engineering Ethics”

Summary of â€Å"An Historical Preface to Engineering Ethics† Michael Davis, in his article â€Å"An Historical Preface to Engineering Ethics† clarifies some misconceptions about engineering and distinguishes the differences between science and engineering by showing progressions through history. He makes a point to disprove engineer turned historian, Eugene Ferguson on his criticism that engineers have no consideration for human welfare by proving that not only do engineers have a deep consideration for human welfare, but that all of Ferguson’s criticisms of engineering are actually compliments given engineers’ military origin.Davis first depicts the progression of the definition of technology from ancient Greece to modern times, showing how the reverence of technology and thus engineering has grown over time. The modern day definition being the study of how to make manual labor easier, and the ancient Greece definition being the study of manual labor, an d since mental labor is more respected than manual labor, engineering has become better respected over time. He disqualifies the misconception that science preceded technology and is therefore older and better than engineering by showing how some inventions predated the science that explains them.He even argues that engineering is better than science because it applies scientific knowledge to make things useful. Davis clarifies that engineering is not the same as technology. Technology being the creation of tools, and engineering being the planning and instruction for others to implement that creation. He shows the history of engineering and how it started in the military, branching out from France to other countries, progressively sophisticating over time. Beginning with engineers in the infantry, creating weapons such as catapults and artillery, France eventually found need of a congregation of the engineers.They founded an organization called the corps du ge’nie, which pro ved very useful in increasing the flow of knowledge and skills and providing records for later use. In just a few short years, they were acclaimed all over France for their advances in military construction. Davis shows that the basis of all modern day engineering originated from the corps and officially started in the 1700’s when they finally came to understand what they could do as engineers and what they wanted to do. After this, he proceeds to show how he Ecole Polytechnique school, which practically perfected engineering curriculum, was formed in France and how it’s curriculum was adopted by the US. The first engineering school in the US, the West Point military academy, was founded on this curriculum. Davis includes these facts about history, not only to differentiate between science and engineering and to clarify misconceptions about engineering, but also to disprove historian Eugene Ferguson’s criticism of engineering. Ferguson criticizes engineering as unethical; he believes that engineers do not care about human welfare.Davis agrees with Ferguson’s points about engineers, but argues that they are not criticisms, but compliments and that engineers do in fact have a deep consideration for human welfare. Ferguson criticizes engineers for being efficient, creating labor-saving devices, putting control into systems, favoring the majority, and treating engineering as a means to an end rather than a means to satisfying human welfare. Davis argues that the first four are actually commendable qualities given engineers’ military origins, and that engineers do hold human welfare paramount and have since very early in their history.Since very early in engineering’s history human welfare has been held paramount. From almost the very beginning, even back in the 1700’s, human welfare was of great importance to engineers. The Ecole Polytechnique in France was noted for their regard for human welfare back in the 1700â €™s and England had the same attitude as France in regard to this as well. In 1828, Thomas Trigold, a member of The British Institution of Civil Engineers was asked to define civil engineering and he defined it as an art of directing Nature for the convenience of man.Davis states that these beliefs still hold true in today’s society, the only thing that differs is the engineers’ code of ethics, to stay consistent with ordinary morals as they differ. Davis argues that even before engineers created a code of ethics involving human welfare that they were not unethical, because they were not expected to hold it paramount, and that they were not unmoral, because not holding the public welfare as paramount is not unmoral in any ordinary sense of morality.Davis ultimately concludes that engineers’ do have high consideration for human welfare. Through historical references, definition contrasts, and counterargument, Davis provides a solid argument that engineering a t its core is based upon the advancement of man, and thus human welfare. Word Count: 767 Citation: Davis, Michael. â€Å"An Historical Preface to Engineering Ethics. † Science and Engineering Ethics 1995: 33-44. Print.

Us pivot to asia

The paper strives to present the gradual transformation within the global political scenario where China is perceived as a growing power, while US as a declining power. The study also incorporates the most significant hegemonic theories of Power Transition and Balance of Power. It, furthermore, unfolds the significance of Asia- Pacific and the competition of global powers over the reserves within the South-China Sea. Being China as a threat to US, the paper offers a comparison between US old strategy of containing Soviet's expansion and Its latest strategy of containing China.Moreover, it also presents the implications of US refinancing on such a vulnerable state of Pakistan. Introduction: The recent changes in the global politics and economy have spurred the world powers to do the utmost in furthering their national goals in-order to seek multiple financial gains. The economic hunger and greed have become the defining characteristics of today's powerful states as the Inclination of International community towards Asia-Pacific Is one such example. It has been acknowledged that the one dominating the Asia-Pacific would also be in the position to become a excessive global might.Being Mediterranean Ocean as a concern of the past, Atlantic as merely a topic of the present, the focus of the entire international community has shifted towards the whole new facet I. E. The Asia Pacific . The phenomenal development and growing might of China have not only disturbed America but also Its partner states since a powerful China could only challenge the US global status. Over the last two decades, Washington has remained stuck In Afghanistan and Iraq, thus paving way for China to advance its political influence within the Asia-Pacific.Pivot to Asia†, or more specifically â€Å"US refinancing†, demonstrates the realization of American strategic thinking towards the threat which Beijing poses to Washington not only diplomatically but also economically. Aim: To stud y the US strategy of â€Å"pivot to Asia† In its historical and contemporary perspective so as to draw its Implications on Pakistan. Significance of Asia-Pacific: The significance of Asia Pacific lies in the geopolitical interests of the key powers of the global politics.The Key players which define the politics of the Pacific include US, Japan, China and several smaller regional actors. The years following the financial predicament of 2009 have witnessed some crucial political and strategic changes since the region has become the centre of attraction driving the global politics. The region finds Its Importance In the economic and political concerns of the major global powers since It Is not only strategically vital but also possesses a symbolic meaning.The one dominating it would determine the political and the financial future of the world as the South China Sea (CSS) contains an enormous bulk of natural reserves. Its importance could be deduced from the fact that as high a s two-thirds of the global sets are being deployed within the area thereby, validating the assumption that by 2050 the centre of gravity would unfalteringly shift to the Asia Pacific. Keeping in natural reserves in that area have become the flashlight.The tussle over the gas, oil, fish and the other reserves have provoked the powers, especially US and China, to adopt a belligerent military posture and to stand eye-to-eye before each other. The CSS, being bordered by China, Vietnam, Philippines, Taiwan, Brunet, Malaysia and Indonesia, elongates to approximately 3,500,000 sq/km and enjoys a bulk of oil and as reserves somewhere underneath the oceans. Furthermore, it is also significant to international shipping since about one-third (almost 41 ,OHO ships) of the global shipping passes through it each year.It is also known for its â€Å"Large Marine Ecosystem† having distinctive features of biography, ecology and oceanography. Being a semi-enclosed sea, it possesses a large numb er of Islands having strategic, legal, political and financial worth for the regional and international powers. It holds the world's most desirable sea lanes, while as high as 80% of the total oil imported by he States of Taiwan, Japan and South-Korea travels via this regions. The international business and trade routes are also equally important for the establishment of military bases as for the political gains.The US presence in the Asia-Pacific proves the point as almost half of the US Naval forces are deployed along the region while, the development of Chinese military capabilities within the area demonstrates the aggressive posture of the key players. The detection of the hydrocarbon and the presence of marine resources, on the other hand, have intensified the competition towards seizing the natural resources to such an extent that a small tension could even prompt a war in the region.The sea also enjoys the idiosyncratic feature of bio-diversity having more than 1,000 fish, 20 0 shrimp and 50 chopped species thereby, contributing its major share in terms of food and revenuer. Moreover, much of the exports and economies of the adjacent States are dependent on the fishery goods. These incentives, thus, spur the key stakeholders to lock their horns with each other. The Core Interests of the Major Actors in Asia- pacific: Asia-Pacific enjoys a special position not only as being an emblem of national prestige, ego and identity but also because of its strategic and geographic worth.The key actors involve US, China and Japan. US Interests: The geopolitical and strategic significance of the Asia-Pacific places the United States as the most enthusiastic, keen and yet most powerful competitor in the region. The regional markets have attracted the US by providing exceptional opportunities for trade, business, investment and above all the possibility to get access to the latest and advanced technology. Keeping in view the recent global recession and American economic slump, the US economic recovery heavily relies on exports and its approach to the Asian consumer markets.The region is strategically, economically and politically vital for the US since the CSS region is in its central interests not only to counteract China but also North Korea. The US stakes in the region are not new but dates back to almost two centuries ago starting off with its independence and continues since then. The ultimate defeat of Japan in World War-II introduced America as the only decisive global power, thereby authorizing it to further its leslies and interests throughout the world and especially in Asia-Pacific.With the passage of time, its interests grew deeper and stronger while engaging all possible Washington reckons that the region holds superseding importance while the progressive future of US largely depends on boosting its trade, diplomatic or armed intervention and its presence is vital to guarantee a serene Asia. On strategic grounds, one of the core inten tions of the US, particularly after 9/1 1, is to ensure absolute security for its citizens from extremism. For this very purpose, its defended ores are positioned all-across the region to deal with the menace and to curb the terrorists threatening the very existence of the land.Most importantly, it is also eager to â€Å"balance the power† against the possible rising regional hegemony, China, which is both financially and diplomatically capable of defying the only global hegemony. Such a possible scenario has forced US to strengthen its alliances with Korea, Australia, Japan, Thailand and Philippines to tackle the very concerns 1 . Washington seems to be very active since the furthering of US interests within the region largely depends n Beam's engaged leadership and administration.On political grounds, US have always been a staunch proponent of democracy. Its democratic commitment has forced the government to get engaged into the domestic issues of smaller regional states li ke Philippines. United States is also interested to uphold the status-quo through its continuous diplomatic and armed presence and also through adopting diverse multilateral approaches to advance its agenda of curbing China and also the prevention of WIND proliferation of North-Korea since Washington perceives itself and its allies being threatened by its nuclear capability.China: Claims and Interests China, being a maritime, air and land power, is keen to acquire certain islands within the South-China Sea. Keeping in view China's mounting dependency on fuel, oil and other natural commodities, it has eyes not only on the CSS region but also has established brotherly ties with the states of Central Asia, Middle East and Africa which are rich in mineral and oil resources. Economic boost and internal stability are two core ambitions of China that have led the country to alter the political scenario not only within Asia but beyond.China claims its right on almost the entire CSS egging w here its claims rests on the historical nine-dash line. The claimed areas include â€Å"Sparely Islands†, â€Å"Gulf of Trotting†, â€Å"Hanna Islands† and â€Å"Parcel Islands†13. The rapidly growing food and oil demands have placed China as one of the key stakeholders of Asia-Pacific, thereby making the rest anxious and concerned. Moreover, being the claimant of broad sovereignty over the region, it has drawn a maritime boundary that extends from Taiwan to Philippines, from Malaysia to Brunet while passing along the Shore of Vietnam.Being an emerging power, it has already established its bases possessing a wide array of advanced equipments both in Parcel and Sparely arrears. The international observers view China's historical claims over sovereignty as highly rigid, invalid and rather self-indulgent, while China incessantly insists on simply following the path that was pursued by the West since US has its shares in certain islands of North-Pacific and F rance controlling few areas in South- Pacific. On historical grounds, China reckons that the Hans, Mongols, Munches and Tibetan were Chinese and the areas conquered or ruled by them, thus, belong to he very land.The historical manipulation has been cashed by the Chinese authorities very efficiently and has provoked patriotic and nationalistic sentiments throughout the country, thereby complicating the issue and making it an emblem of of the majestic legacy of China but also the state-owned media and textbooks promote such a reality. History holds a very unique and significant position within the country which could be witnessed through education, media, myths, folklore and research institutions and has been exploited to strengthen China's territorial and maritime assertiveness.Ever since World War-II has ended, China has actively engaged itself in reshaping and restructuring its borders, refining its territorial integrity by using coercion and historical manipulation, renaming certa in islands and imposing its viewpoint on the rest of the stakeholders. The decade of sass's saw several unpleasant clashes amongst China, Vietnam and Philippines while continuous Chinese maritime inspection has led to escalation of tensions and differences. Furthermore, China has been criticized for violating and disrespecting asses law of sea which the country ratified in 1996.China is keen to pursue at least three core objectives in South-East Asia and CSS region. First is the regional integration which is central to its strategy of â€Å"peaceful rise†. The second incorporates the resource competition and control which is not vital to China but also to other claimants. The growing population and demands of the Chinese have fiercely contributed in China's efforts towards guaranteeing resource security. The third includes China's ensured grip and augmented security within the entire region which has made the US septic over its military intentions.Japan's Role: Japan, an Asia n power, is highly septic and concerned about China's galloping power and, therefore, is keen to contribute in US refinancing strategy. The history of Sino- Japanese ties is not encouraging since Tokyo has remained a dominant US ally against communism during Cold-War. The disintegration of USSR put Us-Japan coalition into a more strong partnership and their friendship has longed for over 60 years. Tokyo is interested to play a foremost role in US refinancing against China and enjoys a significant position in the eyes of America thinkers.Emerging China and US Apprehensions: The turning of US to Asia is based on the hypothesis that its eventual competitor would emerge from the States. Ever since then, the policy makers have drawn-out few possible competitors which could become a threat to the US. Amongst the potential regional powers China, Russia, India and Japan took the lead. The policy and defended analysts, then, objectively analyzed their intentions, military and economic goals and deterrence capability against US.Amongst certain defended analysts of early asses, Marshall was the first one to predict China's military and economic boost in the upcoming thirty years. The most probable scenario, according to him, was that rising China and revived Russia would become key challengers to US hegemony. The dramatic emergence of China has not only confronted American imperative interests but also is capable to defy the US global preponderance. Considering this picture, India, being China's immediate neighbor, has been the most rational choice for the US to incorporate it into a worthy alliance.The China's AD (defended, deterrence and development) stratagem has contributed a bunch in its expansion, development and transformation over the past three decades. Its average GAP growth since 1979 has been measured up to 9. 82%. Being the second largest economic might and third largest commodity exporter, it enjoys a significant position both within and beyond its phenomen al military and economic boost has made a number of world economies dependent on Chinese products and services, thus challenging US economic superiority.The military edge of China over other Asian states allows it to have a diplomatic dominance and coercive capability against its perceived peer competitors. Washington is concerned not only over the China's galloping power but also fears its rear denial potential, thereby allowing it to utilize coercion against its neighboring states and gradually shifting the US dominance from the region. The only choice left for US, therefore, is to deter and dissuade China from expanding its might globally, amongst which â€Å"Pivot or refinancing† is one such strategy.China's rising might spawns intersecting interests, contradictory ideologies and dissenting worldviews. Beijing, not only, is advancing its naval capability but also structuring its military on modern grounds which make the other entrants anxious and agitated. Theoretical Fra mework: The US strategy of refinancing remains a hot topic thus, involving the most crucial theories of International Relations (R) including â€Å"Power Transition Theory' and â€Å"Balance of Power Theory' Power Transition Theory: The hegemonic theory of power transition focuses on a rising power that poses challenges to the dominant power.The idea is that the emerging challenger, being disgruntled with the status-quo, starts approaching the potential of the dominant state thereby threatening to transgress it in terms of power. It means that the leading power is facing a decline n its capacity while the rising state takes full advantage of the situation. Moreover, the emerging state is motivated to topple the prevailing system established by the leading state when it was enjoying its global dominance.Such a situation triggers instability and war becomes inevitable for the challenger to hasten the course of power transition. Such a scenario can be witnessed amongst America and Ch ina where America is the dominant state facing tremendous challenges and China as the emerging one. Balance of Power: The theory highlights the significance of power- haring in an anarchic system where an effort is put forward to avoid any possible hegemonic.The hegemonic designs of the aggressor are challenged by those states that believe in â€Å"balance of power† in-order to secure peace and stability. Such a situation can be seen amongst China, US and its allies where China is perceived as possessing hegemonic designs while US and its partner states struggling to balance the power within Asia-Pacific. Pivot to Asia or US Refinancing: â€Å"The future of politics will be decided in Asia, not Afghanistan or Iraq, and the United States will be right at the centre of the action†26.Hillary Clinton While Afghanistan and Iraq were Bush's focal targets, Asia-Pacific remains a central objective of Barack Beam's regime and administration. Though the region has been a tacit t arget for so long, but was acknowledged in November, 2011 during Beam's visit to Australians. He announced the region as US top priority thereby, associating a strategic, deliberate, diplomatic and premeditated stance to it thus, demonstrating that the US would remain there as an influential player for a much longer time.Since then, the high profile authorities and government officials eve openly been voicing their President's political ambitions, thus showing the level â€Å"pivot to Asia† but later was renamed to â€Å"refinancing† since the word â€Å"pivot† shows impermanence and rather implies that there has been a sudden shift in American strategic thinking while before that the region was not too important for the country. The enduring interests of United States have engaged it with the region for over two centuries.The non-governmental players including media, traders, and academics e. T. C. Have boosted the regions significance for the country and have been belly engaged in obstructing powerful positive and rather productive US-Asian liaison. Since US possesses a notable majority of immigrants, millions of settlers from Asia-Pacific can be found within the country, thereby getting benefited from American capitalist society while remaining attached to their mother homelands. The regimes of both former presidents G. W.Bush and Bill Clinton were largely focused on the crisis situation of Spooks, Iraq, Bosnia, Somalia and later Afghanistan. President Clinton, however, took a few steps towards normalizing the US ties with the other Asian actors including Vietnam, but he was more interested in deterring and also engaging China. At least four core reasons have been provided regarding US turn to Asia-Pacific; the first acknowledges the most palpable transition period where the country has to line-up its future strategic and diplomatic priorities while considering the US departure from Iraq and Afghanistan.Secondly, the recent budgetary cu ts call for the urgency to lay before the table the country apex concerns in-order to eschew those policies which could transgress the budget. The hired motive encounters the ascending economic and military significance of Asia- Pacific since the region has been marked as a defining feature of the century ahead, thereby deciding the fate of human kind. The fourth impetus, which is perhaps the mother of all, underlies the China's rising might and its â€Å"perceived threat† to US.Curtailing or countering China is the fundamental objective that has prompt America to adopt such a policy. The US worries about China's phenomenal growth both militarily and economical, its anti-denial and anti-access (AH/AD) potential and its growing ties with regional peers. It has been keenly involved in strengthening its strategic alliances including Japan, Taiwan, Vietnam, Philippines, Australia, Singapore and Indonesia thus, enclosing China from all angles. The allies are being supported and de fended by US forces whenever they anticipate any danger from China.For example, in 1996, President Clinton sent two battle groups aircrafts to Taiwan when it was provoked against a serious Chinese threat. International observers have argued that the Washington's aggressive posture and continuous presence in the region demonstrates the approaching new era of assertiveness and â€Å"containment† against China. Serious concerns have been raised throughout China in opposition to the refinancing strategy of US. To many defended and political analysts, the strategy is aimed against Beijing to contain its â€Å"peaceful rise† and to trigger insecurity within the region.Washington is interested to strengthen its influence and to maintain its global dominance; therefore, it refers the â€Å"pivot or refinancing† approach as a general strategy targeting the entire globe and not specifically China. Towards Refinancing: It has been acknowledged that the refinancing strategy is actually refinancing the ruder of security in Asia since the policy holds a burden-sharing feature aimed at budgetary cut and being stuck in other global crisis, Washington is persuading its alliances to do the utmost to protect their lands while assuring them support in case of any assault from the Chinese side.In fact, refinancing is a deliberate shift from wars of Africa and Middle East to maritime disputes in East-Asia. US have decided to keep itself focused while deploying an enormous amount of its assets and resources in CSS and Asia-Pacific. A lot of American combat ships, destroyers, submarines and raisers can be found while having military bases in almost all allied states. Washington is keen to have its influence in Hawaii and Guam and also to conduct a training program of over 2000 marines in Australia, its trustworthy ally.It would not only permit the US to enjoy â€Å"freedom-of-navigation† but would also enable it to counter Chinese (AH/AD) capabilities with in the region. However, the budgetary cuts have imposed restrictions on engaging more troops and weaponry. Amongst the other ambitions of Beam's regime lies extensive investment in Asia to line-up the country resources with long-term financial interests. The attraction is the Asian markets which could produce Jobs in the US and could help recover the slumped economy. The key is the regional stability where Washington's continuous role is required to tackle any aggression.A lot of time is being spent by the US government, armed and naval officials in Asia that demonstrates how much focused they are on the very region. The engagement of Washington with SEAN countries and its eagerness to participate in SEAN summits each year signal its enthusiasm of being a decisive player of the region. It is interested both in assuring its military resent and cooperation not only amongst its allies but also with China since the latter's assistance is much needed to uphold the status-quo.Moreover, th e SEAN countries require â€Å"balance of power† within the region while their alliance with US is a major step towards refinancing against China's might. Towards Refinancing: Elements and Objectives The rebalanced remains a multi-faceted, extensive and rather much celebrated policy initiative. Politically speaking, three elements of US refinancing strategy have been figured out that includes defended, financial and diplomatic aspects. L. Security Aspect: The recent adjustments in the US defensive posture reveal the importance of the element of security for the only global hegemony.Washington is aggressively shifting its extensive military potentials from other targets to one platform that encompasses the entire Asia-Pacific region thus, reshuffling its defensive arrangements to ensure a much broader presence of the US armed forces to counter any possible belligerence. This incorporates the highly sophisticated military dispersion in Philippines and Australia and also to othe r regional allies, thereby guaranteeing an enhanced coercive amalgamation within the region. II.Financial Aspect: The refinancing strategy also involves an intention to enhance trade and economic schemes amongst the US and its partners in-order to foster a trustworthy environment. For this purpose, an idea of Trans-Pacific Partnership (TAP), a free-trade accord, has been put forward that currently contains US and eleven other players but excludes China. Moreover, the financial aid to Asia-Pacific allies has also been doubled. Ill. Diplomatic Aspect: The pivot has witnessed heightened diplomatic and military engagement of US high-profile officials in Asia-Pacific.The agenda involves monitoring US-China hostility and promoting trust-building cooperation amongst the two global giants. Keeping into account the US stakes in the region, a number of objectives compliant with American strategic concerns have been drawn out. The central intention, as discussed earlier, is balancing and count ering China while the other objectives revolve around it. L. Constructing a Sense of Justification: Since Washington is currently preoccupied in War-on-Terror, it requires a good reason to pull out its resources from the other regions to Asia-Pacific.The recent phenomenal mom of China has provided US that Justification where it feels itself bound to balance and to defend the land from any aggression. II. Strengthening Alliances: Another objective places the strengthening and reinforcing the strategic alliances as the foremost goal of the US. The idea is to reassure the Asian partners its presence whenever they feel threatened especially by China. Ill. Peaceful Resolution of Regional Disputes: The non-violent resolution of Asian disputes is in the American core interests.The US is very much concerned regarding the solution of China- Taiwan tension and Korean Peninsula. It is keen to imply diplomatic efforts to ensure regional securities. Another objective involves the denationalizati on and non- proliferation of North-Korea in-order to guarantee peace and protection. ‘V. Incorporating Rising Powers: Another objective involves the integration of emerging China into contemporary global order. Keeping into consideration China's economic and military boost, it is vital for the US to make Beijing act as a mature and responsible regional stakeholder. V.Multilateral Commitment and Tackling Non- Traditional Dangers: The strategic alliances are the building-blocks for collaboration against security threats faced by the region whether it be extremism, dangers from climate change, infectious diseases, nuclear proliferation or natural calamities. Such an alliance provides a basis for trust-building and cooperation to tackle Chinese rise. US Refinancing: â€Å"Hub-and-spoke† Vs. â€Å"Spoke-to-spoke† Strategy Washington perceives itself as a decisive and dominant Pacific might where the major part of its foreign policy revolves around shielding and protec ting Eurasia from any possible aggressor.The Beam's â€Å"pivot to Asia† is merely a reflection of American obsession with the region. Moreover, the resultant upshot of World War-II paved way for an undeviating armed presence of US within and around the Asia-Pacific. The US grand strategy involves two options I. E. Over tactics and over posture. These strategic options enable the US to either espouse a forward military posture by having its global premeditated bases or to engage selectively with discerning partner states in pursuit of its national interests.The desertion of Soviet Union had placed China as the only adverse competitor for Washington, a military giant against which America evaluates itself both economically and militarily. In fact, Beijing is powerful enough to give a considerably tough time to the only super power over the upcoming couple of decades since its defended budget and GAP is likely to surpass those of Americana. Moreover, assessments confirm that as compared to Nazi Germany or Soviet Union, China is a more challenging and highly capable antagonist having the potential to compete US economic boost.Though Beijing believes in â€Å"peaceful rise† but the threat of a serious clash amongst the two strategic giants remains high as Washington is much concerned over China's growing strengths. The upcoming 30 to confront the Chinese interests. US, therefore, crave to curb China before such a scenario occurs. For the very purpose, US is eager to conduct Air-Sea battle possessing the potential to hit deep inside the Chinese terrain in-order to perturb China's AH/AD aptitude. It is not only politically acrid but also militarily precarious. Hub-and-spoke† Strategy: Containing Soviet Union and Defeating Communism The cessation of World War-II had witnessed some crucial changes within the political environment especially the metallization of â€Å"hub-and-spoke strategy', a US grand sign to assemble alliances throughout the glo be to guard its immediate interests against any challenger. The only perceptible contender at that time was Soviet Union, former USSR. The â€Å"hub-and-spoke design† acquiesced America to create close bilateral diplomatic and military links with core allies to offer effective deterrence against Soviet rise in Asia.The strategy involved a chain of Joint defended agreements devised at the peak of Cold War with allied states. Three of such treaties were signed in 1951, where the first one involved Philippines while the second incorporated a relater agreement amongst US, New Zealand and Australians. The third entailed a bilateral agreement between US and Japan that enabled America to have its military bases for defensive measures within Japanese territory. Thailand, South Korea and Taiwan also followed the suit. These defended treaties provided security assurance by America against Soviet's threat.The â€Å"hub-and-spoke† strategy, also known as San- Francisco system, had defined the US presence in Asia-Pacific since sass's. The salient characteristics of this system included Intense network of mutual alliances Nonexistence of multilateral defended structures A strong lop-sidedness in alliance relation both in economy and security Special preference to Japan Easy access to US markets Similar to â€Å"pivot to Asia†, the alliances were framed to balance the perceived risk against the then US competitor, USSR.The formulation of SEATS (South-East Asia Treaty Organization) back in 1954 was an evident demonstration of the said strategy where eight states signed the agreement for mutual defended against communist states of USSR and China. The member states incorporated Pakistan, Philippines, Thailand, Australia, New Zealand, France, United States and United Kingdom. The ore focus during the entire Cold War rested on shared defended against global communism, particularly against Soviet Union since the political upshot of World War-II reinforced the competition between East versus West.The obvious differences in the strategic thinking and contradictory interests brought the US and Soviet Union at the verge of war. Being a capitalist society, America felt itself threatened by communist expansion and the growing capability of USSR. However, as compared to today's mighty China, Soviet Union despite of its broad presence in Asia was militarily lesser a Pacific power than the ISSUE. The USSR-China rivalry, on the other hand, provided further political advantage to Washington and its strategic allies to overpower the Soviet Union in Cold War.Consequently, the â€Å"hub-and-spoke† strategy, by having America as the leading hub while the rest of the allied state as the Spokes, remained the key aspect of security design within Asia-Pacific. Similar to what the world has witnessed during the Cold War, American strategic thinking has yet again turned towards another Asian competitor, China. However, the Washington's containment pol icy has altered to some extent since the approach is Ewing transposed into a more disbursed alliance system marked as â€Å"Spoke-to-spoke† strategy.Keeping in view its financial condition, America is encouraging its partners to share its burden of safeguarding Asia. Increased global military trade, armed exercises and training with different stakeholders could be seen within the region to build the ability to challenge Chinese might. US is not only facilitating its regional allies to develop their own defensive system but also provoking them to cooperate with each other in an effort towards opposing China.The term â€Å"Spoke-to-spoke† refers to the new strategy that focuses on â€Å"Spokes† and to the â€Å"Hub†; America, being the facilitator and inciter, leads its alliances to cooperate with itself and amongst each other in-order to share the load of balancing China's rise. Being highly anxious over China's power, Tokyo is playing the dominant role in furthering this containment policy and has established closer ties with various states. Moreover, Japan is enthusiastically involved in developing strategic links especially with Philippines and Vietnam, two extreme regional opponents of China.Similarly, Vietnam is also building good strategic ties with Washington to offset Chinese might. Australia, in 2012, has conducted military exercises with Japan thus, collaborating in maritime affairs. South-Korea, on the other hand, is strongly committed to Join hands with US to contribute a leading role in criticizing the region. Though American leaders often reject it, but US military has maintained an aggressive posture devised with an intention to bring China's maritime commerce at jeopardy. Its armed forces are placed in such a way that could intimidate Beijing supply lines in CSS region thus threatening Chinese economy.Keeping into count China's reliance on sea-lines, Washington is keen to exploit this dependency by provoking its allia nces while Beijing historical territorial tensions with its neighboring states has put China on a relative disadvantage. America has its strategic bases in almost every partner state. As more as 100,000 US military personnel are deployed in both South-Korea and Japan while 2500 submarines are present in Australia. Likewise India, China's genuine Asian competitor, has also partnered with Washington in-order to challenge Chinese rise. US is interested in containing China from all dimensions through alliance structure.Having the most powerful Navy, America enjoys good working ties with regional opponents of China thus maintaining defended pacts with five Asia-Pacific powers. However, the alliances are not only formulated to contain China but also are helpful in curbing global terrorism. The significant aspects of the containment strategy include; a symmetrical network aimed at refinancing the defended burden in Asia-Pacific, introduction of multilateral defended structures like SEAN e. T. C, broadening the scope of defended relations between Washington and allied partners and Preference to each regional ally .

Business Model of Amazon

Opening of the internet to commercial activity, the creation of naming conventions for URLs and the development of a user friendly and free interface i. e. the browser were the three major developments that led to the advent of what is known as â€Å"e-business†. As the economy has moved from agrarian to industrial to information age, the focus of the businessmen or the wealthy and powerful has also shifted in terms of the ways of obtaining wealth or doing business. In the agrarian age there was shortage of land which made ownership of land as the determinant of value.Powerful land barons typically accumulated vast tracts of land and coerced people who were bound to the land and owned by the feudal lord into living on and working it. As economy moved from agrarian to industrial age, physical assets owned by a firm became the determinants of value and shortage of raw-materials led the powerful industrialists to conspire to control the supply of raw materials. In this age, the m arket could absorb as much product as the industrialists could produce.The current era in which we live has been defined as the information age wherein relationships and intellectual capital are more important than anything else. One is not worried about physical assets anymore. Companies don’t compete with each other over superior products as they are largely commoditized rather compete increasingly on the basis of value added customer services. The economic battles of today are fought over the mind-space of consumers. In the information age power-play customers are not passive participants, in the way that land and raw materials were in the agrarian and industrial ages.In fact, according to Zang Hailing, it is the customers' time that is in short supply, and therefore for any firm to succeed, emphasis needs to be given to the importance of reducing the customers' time to adopt a new product. Thus, in a world where technology is changing every day and the transformation of c onsumers has happened from â€Å"Price Takers† to â€Å"Price Makers† as they are armed with more options and information; the companies that control more and more customer relationships will be the ones that hold the power in an industry and reap the lion's share of the profits.E-commerce or e-business is an important tool that enables companies to reach out to the global market at low cost and provides abundant information about the consumers’ requirements and preferences easily which was not so easy earlier. Following figure is a glimpse of the promising future that the ecommerce industry holds. The US E-commerce has seen a 40% increase in the sales over the past 5 years as a percentage of the total retail sales in US. Source: http://ycharts. com Now when thinks about e-commerce, the first name that comes to everyone’s mind is that of Amazon. com.Not only most of the people have heard about it but there are many people who have actually used its servic es. Amazon was not only one of the few of the companies that thrived throughout the period in which many dot-com companies struggled to survive but has been constantly performing exceptionally well in terms of revenue per visitor which is one of the key parameters for any commercial website. Amazon has had one of the fastest growths in the internet’s history with revenues reaching $2, 8 billion in the first five years with Google’s revenue reaching only $15bn in the first five years.Now, just like any other traditional business in order to clearly understand an e-business one needs to have information on the following components: a) Business Strategy which determines the products and service offerings by the firm, the firms targeted customers and the firms value proposition. It also helps firms decide on the choices and the tradeoffs that the firm needs to make. b) Organizational form or structure c) Business processes which refer to the unique ways in which organizati ons coordinate and organize work activities, information, and knowledge to produce a product or service. ) Value Chain i. e. the sequence of activities that a firm undertakes to create value, including the various steps of the supply chain but also additional activities, such as marketing, sales, and service. e) Core Competencies which are the collective learning’s of the firms and being distinctive create long term competitive advantage for the firm. From the beginning, the focus of Amazon. com has been on offering their customers compelling value. In the current report filing dated 04/13/12, Jeffrey Bezos, the founder and CEO of Amazon. om writes â€Å"We realized that the Web was, and still is, the World Wide Wait. Therefore, we set out to offer customers something they simply could not get any other way, and began serving them with books. We brought them much more selection than was possible in a physical store (our store would now occupy 6 football fields), and presente d it in a useful, easy-to-search, and easy-to-browse format in a store open 365 days a year, 24 hours a day. † The Value Proposition offered by Amazon. com is â€Å"earth’s largest selection—24/7, at competitive price. † Amazon. om has continuously focused on improving the shopping experience owing to which they substantially enhanced their stores in 1997. Though they started off with books, they now offer customers gift certificates, 1-ClickSM shopping, and vastly more reviews, content, browsing options, and recommendation features. The company’s stated goal was to â€Å"be Earth’s most customer centric company for three primary customer sets: consumers, sellers and developers. † It targeted its first set of customers through its initial retail model where it sold only books.It offered the perfect combination of low prices, large selection and convenience or customer experience. The digital media allowed limitless inventory, boosted c ustomer care and allowed higher margins and hence lowest prices. In 15 years Amazon went from 1 category to 16 main categories of books. Amazon began with books and needed to grow big fast. From 1995-1998, Amazon moved from books to music and again through the same combination moved to become the biggest seller of music in just 120 days! Amazon moved on develop its own digital driven supply chain and distribution network by hiring from the expert: Wal-Mart.Amazon accelerated development through its strategy of â€Å"Build, buy, partner† a) Build: Amazon keeps on creating new categories. For example, Amazon kicked off a new service by the name MyHabit. com in May 2011 that made fashion available to consumers directly from designers and boutique brands. b) Buy: When there is a lot of competition in any area and the competitors have a strong hold, Amazon believes in buying out the incumbent. Few of the acquisitions made by Amazon include Internet Movie Database  (IMDb), Zappos (an online shoe and apparel retailer) etc. ) Partner: Amazon has also entered into a lot of merchant partnerships. It offers its technological service and ecommerce expertise to third- parties. For example in October 2011, Amazon. com announced a partnership with DC Comics for the exclusive digital rights to many popular comics, including Superman, Batman, Green Lantern, The Sandman, and Watchmen. As mentioned before as well, Amazon want to be the â€Å"world’s most customer-centric† company, and so their focus is on the â€Å"Customer Service†. It ensures customer loyalty through three main approaches: a) Recurring usage b) Seamless Integration c) Lock-inThe following table tells us how Amazon uses all above mentioned approaches for its both customers: Sellers and consumers. | Sellers| Consumers| Recurring Usage| a. Developed a customer base close to 615mn users that can’t be ignored by sellers b. Ensures profit through optimized and reliable technology c. Developed a trusted Brand name| a. Created an ecosystem through Kindle b. Stores user’s media library c. Offers personalization to customers d. Gives special offers everyday| Seamless Integration| a. Monitors sellers rating ratings posted by consumers and expels sellers with bad ratings b.Offers Fulfillment by Amazon service(FBA) which allows third party sellers to use Amazon’s large warehouse and distribution network| a. For customers, all the sellers are highly commoditized and invisible. They buy it because of the Amazons brand value b. Get benefitted by Amazon Prime and free super saver shipping| Lock-in| a. By controlling or owning the customer accounts b. High level of infrastructure development required to ensure same level of customer service as offered by Amazon| a. By providing digital content that works only on Kindle b. Amazon Prime Program which requires annual subscription| | c. | c. |Amazon developed a value chain of itself for internal appraisal so as to identify its strengths and weaknesses that would help it add value and maintain a competitive advantage. Amazon uses the value chain model from Michael Porter’s book, â€Å"Competitive Advantage: Creating and Sustaining Superior Performance. † The first table represents the Primary activities of Amazon which are needed to produce a product or services for the end customers. Inbound logistics| Operations| Outbound logistics| Marketing ; Sales| Service| Avoids the overhead and large amounts of inventory carrying cost because it orders the books from the distributors. Easy and fast payment systems. Online customer systems and feedback. | Operates a number of transportation hubs that they refer to as injection points. Injection point locations are located in heavily customer concentrated areas. | Customer tracking  is an Amazon stronghold through which it provides personalized customers’ experience| Free return policy within 30 days. Uses marketplace to incr ease channel and range of goods through 3rd parties and customers. Highly reduced returns to suppliers (such as unsold books and media) due to available accurate forecasting technology | Customized buyer experience| Ability to aggregate orders bound for specific locations. | Interactive shipping and parceling price calculations. Free delivery based on single transaction spends. | Price comparison of new products with used products in marketplace shops. | Efficiently gathering information about customer experiences to inform service inputs and inventory controls. | 24 hour warehouse operations to meet customer demands. |   Utilizes the capabilities of its supply chain partners to deliver orders directly to ustomers which bypass the Amazon. com internal distribution center network|   Discounts and price reductions made available with suggested product mixes. Similar products recommended to customers interactively. | Offers customers gift certificates, 1-Click SM shopping, and vast ly more reviews, content, browsing options, and recommendation features. | The next table gives information about the various support activities performed by Amazon which help to facilitate or assist its primary activities. | Value Creation| Cost Reduction| Firm Infrastructure| Huge central customer data warehouse available to all business units. Amazon’s single technology platform with services being incrementally distributed to other worldwide locations, reduces costs by leveraging investments | Human Resource Management| Amazon. com has a great training for its employees resulting in talented, smart and hard working group. Offers employees unique benefits such as medical, paid time off and stock grants and relocation allowances and hence attract highly skilled workers| Amazon utilizes independent contractors and temporary personnel to supplement their workforce, particularly on a seasonal basis.Although Amazon has works councils and statutory employee representation obliga tions in certain countries, Amazon’s employees are not represented by a labor union| Technology Development| High investments in technology development (e. g. , Kindle) to best leverage digital products. Innovations such as personalized recommendations, one-click ordering, and search inside the book are all Amazon. com innovations. Highly customized software applications that support their supply chain business model. For example, Amazon. om is linked into Ingram's systems to see Ingram inventory levels when deciding whether to use Ingram to drop ship an order to a customer | Building an IT strategy, IT infrastructure and Data Centre on Linux open source software thus reducing cost of technology development. Renting computing resources to other companies reduce total cost of ownership Using standard hardware systems from HP to reduce cost of maintenance and compatibility| Procurement| Utilizes a Sales and Operations (S&OP) planning process to determine forecasts for each rodu ct that it stores in its distribution center inventoryUses the strategic business unit – Booksurge to keep a rich inventory of digital copies of books so as to make this readily available for customers through print-on-demand and reduce the time of delivery | Specially built distribution Centers, warehouses and fulfillment Centers to increase the speed of order processing thus avoiding transaction costs of contracting out| In addition to the business strategies the value chain components mentioned above, the success of Amazon. om can be attributed to the entrepreneurial spirit of its founder & chief executive officer Jeff Bezos and the strong inclination of the firm towards bringing about innovation in the business model. Let us discuss both factors one by one. Entrepreneurial Spirit of Jeff Bezos: Jeff Bezos can be regarded as the forward-looking CEO responsible for the success of Amazon. com. He has not only efficiently managed the present but through his long term vision a lways taken steps to create the future. The computer science and electrical engineering graduate from Princeton University moved to Seattle after resigning as a Senior Vice-President at D.E. Shaw, a Wall Street investment bank. At the time Bezos didn’t know much about the Internet but he came across a statistic that the Internet was growing at 2300%, which convinced him that it was a large growth opportunity. Without knowing anything more, he plunged into the world of e-commerce with no prior retailing experience. It was his decision to locate the company in Seattle because it had a large pool of technical talent and since it was close to one of the largest book wholesalers located in Rosenburg, Oregon.Moreover, the sales tax laws for online retailers state that one has to charge sales tax in the state in which one is incorporated. Therefore it was logical to locate in a small state. Under his guidance and logical thinking Amazon. com quickly became the leader in e-commerce. Operating 24 hours a day, the site was user-friendly and encouraged browsers to post their own reviews of books and offering discounts, personalized recommendations, and searches for out-of-print books. In June 1998 it began selling CDs, and later that year it added videos.In 1999 Bezos, looking at the future trends, added auctions to the site and invested in other virtual stores. The success of Amazon. com encouraged other retailers, including major book chains, to establish online stores. As more companies battled for Internet dollars, Bezos saw the need to diversify, and by 2005 Amazon. com offered a vast array of products, including consumer electronics, apparel, and hardware. And with the Jeff Bezos vision to make every book ever in print in any language available to the consumer in 60 seconds, Amazon launched the handheld device called Kindle in 2007.Bezos is the quintessential dot-com icon. He proved to the business world that the Internet was about more than knowledge. He pr oved that it is possible to overcome fears about purchasing online, to drive down transaction costs, and to build an international e-commerce business over the Internet. He had the courage to attempt something that people doubted could be done. . At the age of 35, Jeff Bezos was picked as the 1999 Time person of the year. Describing why it chose Bezos, Time magazine said, â€Å"Bezos’  vision  of the online retailing universe was so complete, his Amazon. om site so elegant and appealing that it became from Day One the point of reference for anyone who had anything to sell online. † Innovation in the Business Model: Amazon survived the dot-com bust because it had a viable and innovative  business model  built around a market-changing customer value proposition and a radical profit formula and over it has been able to sustain its position as the leader in e-commerce by bringing about continuous innovations in its business model. Let us look at some of the differe nt dimensions wherein Amazon. om has been able to bring about business innovation. a) Offerings: By offering a handheld device dedicated to reading, Kindle, Amazon. com revolutionized the books industry. By creating a product like Kindle, the created a perfect, integrated and streamlined customer experience. b) Platform: With Amazon Web Services, Fulfillment By Amazon, and Kindle Direct Publishing, Amazon is creating powerful self-service platforms that allow thousands of people to boldly experiment and accomplish things that would otherwise be impossible or impractical. ) Customers: In 2002 Amazon launched a web services platform and identified a new area of potential growth by finding another new customer—the IT community. Serving this new customer's needs required different processes, different resources, and a different profit formula—in short, another  new business model. d) Customer Experience: 1-Click combined with Gift-Click and Wish List made Amazon. com the most convenient, easiest-to-use shopping destination the holiday season.Wish List allows customers to post the gifts they'd most like to receive from family and friends, while Gift-Click allows customers to send gifts easily by entering just the e-mail addresses of their recipients. e) Value Capture: By opening up its storefront to other retailers that were essentially competitors, Amazon transformed its business from direct sales to a sales-and-service model, aggregating many sellers under one virtual roof and receiving commissions from the other companies' sales. ) Supply Chain: Fulfillment by Amazon service (FBA) by Amazon is a classic example of innovating business model through supply chain. FBA allows third party sellers to use Amazon’s large warehouse and distribution network and in the last quarter of 2011, shipped tens of millions of items on behalf of sellers. When sellers use FBA, their items become eligible for Amazon Prime, for Super Saver Shipping, and for Amaz on returns processing and customer service.From the above discussion of Amazon’s business strategy, value chain analysis and the success factors we can conclude that Amazon has a robust Business model. Amazon’s business model fends off all the four threats. It has the costly-to-imitate financial and technological resources, it has developed protection against holdup by seamlessly vertically integrating its both the customers i. e. the sellers and the consumers. Reduced slack by locking-in the customers and the sellers and fights substitution through innovation in business model.

Bullying in Schools Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Bullying in Schools - Essay Example By definition, the term bullying is used to describe a specific behavior pattern, usually found more among boys than among girls. â€Å"Bullying is characterized by bigger and stronger youngsters’ ‘victimizing’ their peers through the repeated use of negative actions, such as physical, verbal or relational aggression†. This gender difference is generally believed to be the result of a stronger male association with physical aggression as an appropriate means of establishing and maintaining peer status or dominance. For many of these children, whether victims or bullies, the patterns for their later treatment in school can be seen to be established to some extent at home. A study conducted by Schwartz, Dodge, Pettit, and Bates found that children who grew up to be aggressive victims in primary school had most often experienced punitive, hostile and abusive family relationships during their preschool years while those engaged in aggressive acts had witnessed greater incidences of adult aggression but had not experienced this aggression firsthand. However, those children who emerged as passive victims of bullying behavior in school demonstrated a little difference between their early home life with those children who were not victims. Early studies looking into the general category of what was initially termed ‘undesirable behavior’, which included acts of bullying, discovered that behavior problems such as bullying increased with age, reaching a peak between the ages of 9 and 13.

Stem Cell Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Stem Cell - Research Paper Example The stem cells have been used in the medical fields to rectify conditions, and its application in treating Epydermylosis Bullosa is a good example. Successful gene therapies and treatments in the management of the condition were realized in 2010 and 2013. The stem cells were also used earlier and by 2009, bone marrow transplants were used to remedy conditions. Research is also being furthered to establish whether the stem cells can be used in the treatment of leukemia, brain injuries, and cancer among others. Stem cells provide a positive prognosis if well applied and intensive research done before the use. For instance, advice is given that one should select a sustainable and appropriate stem cell for any therapy and treatment. Though there are fears that stem cells cause cancer if the build up and differentiation is too much, there is no doubt that stem cells promise a better future in therapy and treatment of illnesses and malfunctions. The human body is made up of millions of cel ls that perform many specialized functions. The cell has been defined as the basic unit of life, which translates to showing the paramount importance of the cells in our bodies. These cells are differentiated and they carry out specialized functions, perfect examples being the blood cells and the liver cells (Dittmar and Zanker, 2009). In the body, there is also another type of cells which are referred to as stem cells. Stem cells are cells with the ability to differentiate and develop into other specialized types of cells. They can be termed as the raw materials for the body due to their importance and unique aspect of replicating cells. These stem cells are distinguished from the rest by three very special and unique characteristics. First, these cells are unspecialized and undifferentiated, as opposed to the other body cells that are highly specialized and differentiated. This means that they can reproduce cells that can perform any function, from the heart cells, blood cells, li ver cells among others. The fact that they are undifferentiated means that they do not have a defined or particular line of role that they become. They usually become any cell type once they differentiate (Lanza and Atala, 2013). The second characteristic is that stem cells can be induced to produce and become cells with special functions, this being the main reason why they are used in the laboratory for experiments. The last unique characteristic is that whereas the other cells in the body differentiate to replicate themselves, the stem cells do not differentiate to reproduce themselves. Instead, they produce daughter cells which can either become stem cells yet again or become specialized and differentiated cells. These stem cells do not have such a limited life span as compared to the other cells. The stem cells are also very important since they help in renewing, repairing and replacing all dead and worn out tissues and cells in the body (Eapen and Nandini, 2011). Types of stem cells There is no single form of classifying then types of stem cells that has been conventionally agreed on, but one of the most known and classification of types is based on their potency. This results to having five types of stem cells (Lanza and Atala, 2013). The totipotent stem cell type is the first type. These are stem cells that are formed

Affect Of Global Recession on Hospitality and Quality Management in 4 Dissertation

Affect Of Global Recession on Hospitality and Quality Management in 4 Star Hotels in Eastbourne, London - Dissertation Example The hotel industry is one of the highest income generators in London due to the booming tourism that is experienced in London and its environs. This has been going on for decades, and not just in London, but also in various cities around the world. Travelling has become a common occurrence in people’s lives for purposes of business, leisure, academic commitments and visiting friends and close associates. With tourism comes hospitality, hence, the high proportion of tourists who every year flock into London has necessitated the establishment of hotels and other forms of accommodation for the tourism. The hospitality sector has for decades grown, and currently it is one of the highest earners in the United Kingdom. As a result of this, global trends also affect tourism in the UK, which would further have an impact on the hospitality and hospitality management in London. The global recession affected the circulation of money around the globe, and since tourists visiting London are derived from UK and various parts of the world, it is evident that tourism was affected. With global recession came an increased standard of living among people. These changes ensured that numbers visiting London were not the same as those that initially visited the city. As a result of all these factors, hospitality and quality management in hotels was markedly affected since hotels were operating under new financial factors and new visitors.

Clinical quality and patient safety Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Clinical quality and patient safety - Assignment Example e leading cause of the occurrence and development of the hospital-acquired infections is the medical practitioners becoming complacent and fail to practice the correct hygiene regularly (Mayhall, 2004). As a nurse practitioner, I would develop a rule that will enhance all practitioners take hygiene seriously. For the rule to be well implemented and to work out comprehensively, I would allocate every section to a practitioner who will be accountable for the hygiene of that section. Any infection that will be occurring in ones’ section due to a preventable cause, the practitioner in charge will bear the cost of treating the infected casualties and also pay a fine. By so doing, all the medical practitioners in that facility will be vigilant of any form of a condition likely to favor the development of hospital-acquired infections. No individual nurse or practitioner will accept to bear the cross of something preventable (Mayhall, 2012). This means that everyone will do his or her best to ensure that the section allocated to him or she is infection free. This will in turn lead to the safety of patients as well as acquiring a clean environment for all the occupants of the

Some little questions of political social scnence Assignment

Some little questions of political social scnence - Assignment Example If there is inequality between the identical workers, this means that those working in unions are more skilled which increases inequality because these workers are more knowledgeable than the non-union workers. The strong relationship between unions and inequality attracts great interests and analysts struggles to illustrate increase in labor inequality in most industrialized countries. This has been a great challenge in countries that experiences high levels of geographical mobility, with rate of competitive labor markets. Mobility is measured in terms of income earned and the rate of employment. When the low income earners search for new employment opportunities, this increases the level of labor mobility, and on the other hand, when the unemployment rate is high, this increases geographical mobility. Externalities are common aspects in almost every field of economic activity. They are referred as third party effects emanating from the manufacturing of goods and services without any suitable compensation considered. When there is negative production, the marginal social cost exceeds the private marginal cost as illustrated by the diagram below. In other aspects, externalities may result to market failure. In illustrating this, we assume that if a manufacturer is only interested in maximizing profits, then they only account for private costs and private benefits that arise from the product supplies. The diagram below illustrates that the level of profit maximization is at Q1. On the other hand, the social optimum output level is at Q2. Unionization causes a significant change in the market besides its great influence on remunerations and employment. Labor unions prohibit employers from negotiating with employees that are unionized. Registered Unions act as collective bargaining representatives for employees. However, these trade unions may cause labour market failure, since they aim at enhancing the wage rates for the workers.

Molecules and Processes of Life Activity 6 - Cellular Respiration and Lab Report

Molecules and Processes of Life Activity 6 - Cellular Respiration and the Effects of Pollutants on Its Rate - Lab Report Example The amount of gas emitted at the top of tube was observed to over 10 minutes so as to determine cellular respiration rate. The pollutants used included; vinegar, salt solution, isopropyl alcohol, baking soda, soap solution, and bleach solution. The result for yeast mixture was compared with the results for yeast-sugar mixture. The yeast-sugar mixture exhibited a faster cellular respiration rate. The outcomes of the pollutants had mixed results. Except baking soda, most of the pollutants utilized had a lower cellular respiration rate. According to Carpenter (2013), cellular respiration is a process in which chemical energy in the food is reaped and converted into energy that is utilized in carrying out the normal life process. Every organism requires cellular respiration for survival. This process happens in three distinct phases; glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain. Lippmann (2009) argues that during these cycles, oxygen and glucose in our body are turned into carbon dioxide, energy, and water. The first phase of cellular respiration is when one glucose molecule is split to produce two pyruvic acid molecules, a 3-carbon compound (Schapira, McQuaid & Froneman, 2011). This first phase is anaerobic, implying it does not need oxygen to occur. The remaining phases require oxygen. As such, the experiment was conducted within an oxygen zone and a considerable time frame to allow the three phases of cellular respiration to occur. To test our first hypothesis, the experimental design was such that yeast was mixed with water then poured into a test tube. A wider test tube was placed over the yeast test tube and flipped together over 10 minutes to observe the level of gas amounting in the wider tube. The amount of gas was recorded every minute in the10 minutes. The same was done to a yeast-water mixture but with granulated sugar added into

Adult education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Adult education - Essay Example Ireland has a long tradition of providing learning opportunities for mature students.The Local Studies,Community Studies and Computer Studies Programs are designed specifically for such students. They are offered at the specified Campus on a part-time modular basis. The in-built flexibility of the degrees is designed to accommodate the many demands that mature students face when they return to education. Since the introduction of the Adult Education Programs they have attracted students from a variety of backgrounds. Feedbacks from students who have graduated indicate that the rewards that accrue from completing the degree greatly outweigh the challenges posed by the experience. The friendships, the increase in self-confidence and the opportunity to explore ideas in an academic setting are often cited as the most cherished aspects of their experience.A Course Management Team oversee their ongoing development and ensures that the management of the degree meets the expectations of stud ents. A Support Officer works closely with students to ensure that the specific needs of individuals can be addressed. All the Departments and those involved in the management and delivery of these degrees are committed to providing positive and accessible learning opportunities for mature students. An information brochure is designed to help and encourage the interested students to join us on an exciting learning journey.The Adult Education Program offers modular part-time degrees in Local Studies and Community Studies. These programs were developed in response to the demand for inter-disciplinary, flexible progression routes for adults to degree level. They are offered in the evening to facilitate adults who are unable to attend on a full-time basis during the day. They represent a further expansion of giving provision for mature students. With such innovative features as flexible delivery, modularization, credit accumulation and recognition of accredited prior learning, students may advance in a systematic and learner friendly way towards a primary degree. These programs are offered at the main campus. 2.Structure of the Programs Over a five-year cycle of delivery the following three programs are provided: - Programme 1: Local Studies - Programme 2: Community Studies - Programme 3: Computer Studies Students on the degree may choose to follow either the Local Studies Program or the Community Studies Program or the Computer Studies Program. It is not possible to attend modules from all the three programs, except where Common Modules are offered. The inter-disciplinary nature of the program means that various University Departments have responsibility for module delivery. 1. Local Studies: Participating Departments - History, Geography, Ancient Classics, , Language Centre, Sociology, Anthropology, Adult & Community Education 2. Community Studies: Participating Departments - Adult & Community Education, Applied Social Studies, Anthropology, Sociology, Geography, History 2. Computer Studies: Participating Departments - Adult & Community Education, Applied Social Studies, Information Technology. Modules: Each program is offered through modules. A module is a "block" of learning in which a particular topic is taught and assessed. Most modules are "stand alone" and can be studied as separate blocks. All modules carry credits towards the degree. The modules of study are delivered through a combination of regular lectures, tutorials, presentations, field courses and short summer schools. Semesters Each academic year has two semesters. Semesters are blocks of fifteen weeks, consisting of twelve weeks class contact and two weeks study and examinations. Each academic year on-campus is typically structured as follows: Semester 1 September - November 12 weeks class contact + 2 study weeks Semester 2 January - April 12 weeks class contact + 2 study weeks Summer Modules (Optional) Monday - Friday full-time 1 week Lectures are offered over two or three nights per week, usually Tuesday, Wednesday and

Civilization vs. Savagery Essay Example for Free

Civilization vs. Savagery Essay Counterpoint is a common literary device used by many authors in a variety of forms of literature. It gives the work contrast and interest as well as a diverse insight into two completely different ideas or opposites. The main counterpoint presented in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies would be the idea of civilization vs. savagery. This motif is presented throughout the novel. The idea that humans are constantly battling their feral instincts and civilized ideals is a theme that is deeply and extensively explored. Golding acquaints civilization with good, and savagery with evil. He uses symbolic characters and objects in order to convey his themes and ideas. He represents the opposing forces of civilization and savagery with the two main characters: Ralph, the protagonist, who represents order and leadership; and Jack, the antagonist, who represents savagery and the desire for power. Among these characters there are many others who react to the conflict in different ways. The conflict between these opposites is the driving force of the novel. When it comes down to the idea of civilization, Golding implies that civilization is something forced upon humans by society, and not something one is instinctively drawn to. Civilization is merely just a mask of ones instincts. Ralph is the perfect example of the desire for civilization among the boys of the island. He expresses this quality when he states, â€Å"Weve got to have rules and obey them. After all, were not savages. Were English, and the English are best at everything† (Golding 2.192). The boys still desire their previous, ordered life they left back in England. Ralph is the symbol of supressing one’s natural savage instincts, he feels the thrill and exhilaration of barbarity but manages to subdue these spirits. Piggy is also an example of the human need for civilization. Not once in the novel does he display savage feelings or undertones. This shows just how badly the human race strives for civilization, but it is not something organic. The counterpoint to the idea of civilization in Lord of the Flies would be the theme of savagery. Golding seems to suggest throughout the novel that a humans savage instincts are far more powerful then the desire for civilization. The perfect character to acquaint to the theme of savagery would be Jack. Jack thrives off of dominance and power. He exemplifies these traits during the murder of Simon: The sticks fell and the mouth of the new circle crunched and screamed. The beast was on its knees in the center, its arms folded over its face. It was crying out against the abominable noise something about a body on the hill. The beast struggled forward, broke the ring and fell over the steep edge of the rock to the sand by the water. At once the crowd surged after it, poured down the rock, leapt on to the beast, screamed, struck, bit, tore. There were no words, and no movements but the tearing of teeth and claws. (Golding 9.89-99) The boys revert to their instinctive ferocious roots, having no mercy on their fellow human. They cruelly murder Simon as if he were a wild animal. Roger is also a good example of savagery in the novel. As the idea of civilization on the island begins to become a distant memory, Roger lets himself become victim of his most basic human instincts. This is first apparent to the reader when Roger throws rocks at the littluns, and after his murder of the pig which was much more brutal then necessary. Roger is also the leading culprit in the loss of Piggy. He was the one who pushed the boulder down the hill inevitably causing Piggy’s death. While Jack feeds off the idea of power, Roger revolves around causing pain. He symbolizes the sadistic instincts of mankind, and having to suppress the desire to hurt others in order to function in society. William Golding uses counterpoint to his advantage in the writing of his novel Lord of the Flies. He clearly expresses the conflict between the complex human need for civilization and mankind’s savage instincts. He expresses the struggle extensively using the characters in the novel to portray both sides. Savages vs. those who struggle to keep civility. The novel deeply explores the concept of human instincts overpowering one’s facade of civilization put on for the rest of society. How, when left up to their own devices, humans are capable of doing the unthinkable. Works Cited Golding, William. Lord of the Flies. London: Faber and Faber, 1954.

The Meaning of Lives Essay Example for Free

The Meaning of Lives Essay In her article The Meaning of Lives, Susan Wolf, a moral philosopher and philosopher of action, investigates whether meaning can exist in lives without postulating the existance of God. Wolf establishes her position on this philosophical question from an agnostic perspective and rationally argues that such a question can in fact â€Å"fit within a negative or agnostic view about the meaning of life† (Wolf 63). With this paper, I will first summarize the prominent points of Wolf’s article then highlight and expound upon areas of her argument that contradict her line of reason. Lastly, I will introduce the theistic perspective on meaningful lives along with presenting Wolf’s reason and argument as supporting evidence for the theistic view. In the Meaning of Lives, Susan Wolf opens briefly with an evaluation of the philosophically ambiguous question, â€Å"What is the meaning of life? † She argues this particular question is impossible to rationalize because it dependents upon a postulation for the existence of God. Wolf claims it is necessary to postulate the existence of God in order to argue this original question because if God does exist, then He â€Å"may have created us for a reason, with a plan in mind†(Wolf 63). Thus, if God exists then there would be purpose and meaning to human existence dependent upon the creator God. Wolf does not deny the existence of God; she simply suggests that a divine existence is improvable. Therefore the question of a grand purpose and meaning in life is an unnecessary and an improvable argument to find an answer to, due to the improvable nature of God. However, she does believe that meaning in lives is not contingent upon the existence of God stating, â€Å"Meaningfulness is an intelligible feature to be sought in life† and that â€Å"a positive view about the possibility of meaning in lives can fit with a negative or agnostic view about the meaning of life†(Wolf 63). She expounds on this argument in three distinct sections. The first part of Wolf’s argument observes three different examples of meaningless lifestyle. Wolf articulates that learning from three paradigms of meaningless lives, one can construct an understanding for meaningfulness. She begins with a lifestyle she labeled the Blob. The Blob is defined by a lifestyle that â€Å"is lived in hazy passivity†¦ unconnected to anyone or anything, going nowhere, achieving nothing† (Wolf 64). Wolf deduces from the Blobs meaningless lifestyle, that in order to attain a meaningful life one must be engaged in a project, which can include relationships. The second meaningless lifestyle, in contrast to the Blob’s lifestyle of passivity, is regarded as the Useless life; â€Å"a life whose dominant activities seem pointless, useless or empty† (Wolf 65). After reviewing the lifestyle of the Useless life, a life void of worth, to achieve meaning â€Å"one must be engaged in a project or projects that have some positive value† (Wolf 65). The final category of a meaningless life would be the lifestyle of the Bankrupt, â€Å"someone who is engaged or even dedicated, to a project that is ultimately revealed as bankrupt, not because the person’s values are shallow or misguided, but because the project fails†(Wolf 65). Ultimately, Wolf concludes that in order to achieve meaningfulness one must not only be engaged in a project of positive value but that project must be in some way successful. After providing a working definition for a meaningful life, Wolf raises the question as to what constitutes â€Å"positive value† and who has the right to objectively determine value. Similarly to Wolf’s construction of meaningfulness, she argues reasons for why an individual is incapable of objectively determining positive value. This incapability for determining objective value is due to the individual’s subjectivity and â€Å"interest in living a life that feels or seems meaningful†(Wolf 66). Therefore, because an individual is incapable of distinguishing objective positive value from interest, it is unlikely that the individual can distinguish what is required for a meaningful life. She argues that objective value is determined and achieved through observing value in other people’s lives. Wolf clarifies that the objective good she is referring to is not compared to moral goodness, â€Å"benefiting or honoring humanity† (Wolf 67). Wolf claims that meaningfulness is not contingent upon moral value. Instead, Wolf suggests that while there are examples of lives exhibiting great moral value, such as Mother Teresa and Gandhi, that are full of meaning; there are also examples of other lives, such as â€Å"artists, scholars, musicians and athletes†, that possess great meaning, not based upon their moral value. These lives are considered valuable and meaningful due to their ability to â€Å"develop our skills and our understanding of the world† which â€Å"give meaning to our lives- but they do not give moral value to them †(Wolf 67). A greater understanding of our own worth and the Universe is what Wolf constitutes for lives to have meaning. The final stage in Wolf’s argument poses the question â€Å"what is the good, after all, of living a meaningful life†(Wolf 67)? Wolf does not wish to define goodness, but rather discusses the advantages for living a life full of meaning. Wolf makes the final stand, that in order to grasp meaningfulness and understand how one can achieve it in their life; an individual must become enlightened to their status in the world as â€Å"a tiny speck in a vast universe† (Wolf 69). This description of where an individual lies in relation to the vastness of the Universe, provides the reality that meaning in lives cannot logically be contingent upon the desires and benefits for the individual, due to humanities insignificance. It seems illogical to Wolf, that a person who seeks to find meaning in their life could conclude that is dependent upon their independent happiness claiming, â€Å"to devote oneself wholly to one’s own satisfaction seems to me to fly in the face of truth, to act as if one is the only thing that matters, or perhaps, more, that one’s own psychology is the only source of (determining) what matters† (Wolf 70). The truth, to which Wolf refers, is the reality that individuals have very little significance in relation to the value of the vast Universe. It is because of this truth that a self-center and egocentric life goes against of logic after such a truth is realized. Wolf argues that instead of egocentric priorities to achieve meaning, an individual should alternatively be focused on the needs of the Universe and others. She understands that â€Å"you are just one person among others, equally real- is the source of practical reason-in this case, it gives you reason to take the pains of others to constitute reasons for action†¦reason to care about the pain of others that is grounded, not in our own psychologies, but a fact about the world†(Wolf 70). In this section, I will address three areas of Wolf’s reasoning I find to be inconsistent with her argument as a whole. A concern that I have regarding Wolf’s argument is her use of the word â€Å"meaning†, in regards to the meaning of lives. A very different connotation of the word â€Å"meaning† suggested by the philosophical question, â€Å"What is the meaning of life? † Wolf states that the question, â€Å"What is the meaning of life? † requires an individual to postulate the existence of God because it implies their ultimate aim â€Å"to find a purpose or a point to human existence†(Wolf 63). However, Wolf also argues, â€Å"whether or not God exists, the fact remains that some objects, activities and ideas are better than others. Whether or not God exists some ways of living are more worthwhile than others†(Wolf 72). At the beginning of Wolf’s argument about the meaning of lives, suggests that she neither denies nor rejects the existence of God. She argues this as true because she believes the question behind the meaning in lives can be answered as â€Å"an intelligible feature to be sought in life and that it is at least sometimes attainable but not everywhere assured†(Wolf 63). Wolf reduces the meaning of lives to that which can be determined by human reasoning a finite measurement of this transitory world. Thus Wolf, who has neither denied nor rejected the existence of God has unreasonably eliminated the question of origin of lives, as irrelevant to meaning in lives. She focuses how certain types of lives merit significance in existence and consequently refers to the word â€Å"meaning† as synonymous with value. Finally, Wolf argues that there is value in human lives that â€Å"can fit with a negative or agnostic view about the meaning of life†(Wolf 66). This statement is far less controversial than her attempts to argue that meaning in lives is achievable without the postulation of God. Logically, to explore meaning in lives, one must consider the beginning of life, which must have been constructed either by accident or by a creator. Meaning cannot be cited as more or less significant at a particular point in an individual’s life. Thus, the point that one comes into existence must be regarded for defining meaning within an individual’s life. The second problem in Wolf’s argument comes in her evaluation of what is considered a project of positive value. An individual who is engaged in a project of positive value is central to Wolf’s definition of a meaningful life. Although, projects of positive value can add to meaning in an individual’s life, Wolf’s reasoning as to â€Å"who is to decide which projects have positive value† is vague and inconsistent with her earlier positions (Wolf 66). Wolf concludes that individuals are incapable of objectively deciding what has positive value, due to subjective interests, which skew their understanding of objective value. Wolf deduces that in order for an individual to understand projects of positive value, which will eventually adds meaning to heir lives, they must experience an â€Å"epiphany†¦ to the recognition that our life to date has been meaningless† (Wolf 66). This comment is completely inconsistent with Wolf’s fundamental goal to acquire an understanding of meaning in lives from an intelligible process of reason. The understanding for projects of positive value through an epiphany is inconsistent with her pervious arguments because it depends she suggests that understanding meaning comes from an unintelligible source of knowledge. Who is to say that that epiphany is not guided by a supreme higher being? The irony of Wolf’s conclusion about the necessary epiphany, is that her statement â€Å"It is the sort of experience that one might describe in terms of scales falling from ones eyes†, compares closely to the allusion found in Acts 9:18 (Wolf 66). The verse reads â€Å"And immediately something like scales fell from his eyes, and he regained his sight. Then he rose and was baptized† (NIV 1000). The language of scales falling from the eyes in order to gain true understanding is regarded in both versions as an act depended upon a supernatural entity enabling the change. This very interesting comment by Wolf, suggests that understanding how an individual recognizes truth through epiphany is beyond the capabilities of human control and intellect. Her attempted arguments about how a meaningful life is realized are sound up until the point about epiphany. Lastly, Wolf’s argument for meaning in lives lacks any discussion of immortality as a necessary property for meaning. Wolf reasons that there are certain lifestyles that are more meaningful than others. This argument for certain lifestyle having greater meaning has limited relevance because as she rationalizes, lives are finite and temporary as are the lives of others whom we must focus in our acknowledgement of the truth that we are just a â€Å"speck in the vast Universe†(Wolf 69). Wolf does a fine job at articulating the insignificance and temporary state of human life. However, she fails to recognize that in her attempts to construct a logical framework for meaning in finite lives she disregards the possibility for immortality to give further meaning to lives. Thus, she reduces the idea of meaning as an avoidance of an egocentric lifestyle and recognizes insignificance and meaning within an individuals’ life alone. Wolf’s claim that meaning is attainable through certain actions only satisfies temporary lives for a finite amount of time. This argument surrounding meaning as dependent upon an inward realization of insignificance manifesting into outward actions, is simply a cycle of meaningless people helping other meaningless people, and causes only a temporary impact. In an argument for the importance of immortality to meaning in lives, Gianluca Di Muzio states, â€Å"If a human being dies and her actions have no lasting effect, because the world itself perished, then her life was meaningless. If, in the end, all comes to nothing, then it does not matter in the first place whether a particular person existed or not† (Di Muzio 2). In order for actions and lives to be meaningful, they must have a lasting impact or something to gain, and provide for others in a way that is not reducible to the finite and temporary world. Thus, achievable immortality must exist for meaning to be possible. Although she attempts to determine the meaning in lives for an agnostic world, I would argue that Wolf’s argument actually supports many theistic views regarding the meaning of lives. Though many of Wolf’s arguments do not adequately provide understanding for meaning in lives from an agnostic perspective, many of her points parallel to the theistic view of â€Å"purpose theory. † Before I expound on these similarities, an understanding of the theistic view regarding the meaning of must be addressed. According to Borchert, the theistic view argues that, â€Å"life is meaningful insofar as one fulfills a purpose that God has assigned† (Borchert 295). In â€Å"Confession†, Leo Tolstoy discusses meaning in life from the theistic perspective and claims â€Å"now I see clearly that my faith-my only real faith-that which apart from my animal instincts gave impulse to my life- was a belief in perfecting myself† (Klemke 2). Tolstoy sought such perfection in artistic achievements and loving his family. In trying to find meaning in family and people, Tolstoy ultimately realizes that â€Å"My family — wife and children — are also human. They are placed just as I am: they must either live in a lie or see the terrible truth† (Klemke 10). In other words, Tolstoy realizes that if meaning resides in the finite and temporary nature of humanity, meaning too will die along with the life. Tolstoy further suggests that meaning cannot reside within artistic modes when he writes Art, poetry? Under the influence of success and the praise of men, I had long assured myself that this was a thing one could do though death was drawing near — death which destroys all things, including my work and its remembrance; but soon I saw that that too was a fraud† (Klemke 10). This declaration further supports Tolstoy’s theistic belief that everything of and in this world cannot be the ultimate source of meaning in lives. Although, the substance of this world may increase value within life, it cannot supply ultimate, enduring meaning. Tolstoy finally declares, â€Å"To know God and to live is one and the same thing. God is life- Live seeking God, and then you will not live without God† (Klemke 11). This passage concludes with his theistic assertion that without a â€Å"divine plan for the world, then all efforts come to nothing, because everything comes to nothing. Hence our lives are meaningless without God† (Metz 293). Though Wolf attempts to support an agnostic view for the question, â€Å"is there meaning in lives? † her central points mirror those of the theistic view and supports many of its claims. This final section will concentrate on central points within Wolf’s argument that support a theistic view for understanding meaning in lives. To begin, she claims that a life has meaning insofar as it is â€Å"engaged in a project or projects that have some positive value† (Wolf 65). Although this statements seems logical, Wolf fails to provide an intelligible source for acquiring knowledge about whether or not a project has positive value and which projects do not. She betrays the agnostic attempt to provide an understanding of meaning in lives through reason, by suggesting that realization of projects with positive value relies upon an epiphany. The concept of an epiphany for realization is inconsistent with her attempts to rationalize. However, when Wolf’s definition is placed against the theistic view, it is logically consistent with theological beliefs. Theists believe that an individual must be actively engaged in positively affecting peoples lives with in the world, while ultimately contributing to God’s divine plan in order for their lives to have meaning. This concept is articulated beautifully in Gianluca Di Muzio’s argument: Theism and the Meaning of Life, in which he states, â€Å"In order to have meaning, our lives must make a difference to a higher scheme. And theism sees human action as doing a sort of double duty. On one hand, they affect other people and events in this world, on the other, they further or hinder God’s ultimate plan† (Di Muzio 2). This statement suggests that humanities actions in projects have the ability to have two different forms of significance, both relative and ultimate. Relative significance refers to the theistic perspective that, â€Å"actions and events have relative significance when they only influence other actions and events†(Di Muzio 3). Ultimate significance is when our actions and events â€Å"contribute to God’s plan† (Di Muzio 3). Both of these forms contribute to theistic view, however Wolf’s argument focuses solely on relative significance. The theistic understanding of relative significance is paralleled to Wolf’s understanding of meaning in lives. She believes that when individuals realize their insignificance and begin to seek beyond themselves for meaning by actively engaging in projects of positive value, they can acquire meaning. Though this insignificance is transient, it supports the theistic belief that, â€Å"human beings have access to value† without having to postulate the existence of God, because â€Å"existence affords the opportunity to attain the kinds of goods that make a human life worthwhile and fulfilling† (Di Muzio 5-6). Wolf’s profound point that human life is just a â€Å"speck in a vast universe† lays the foundation for the theistic belief in ultimate significance (Wolf 71). Theists believe that there is A fundamental disproportion between aspirations and reality is a powerful source of the idea that our lives are absurd and meaningless. We think we matter, and yet we don’t. The world is not intoned with our hope, desires and projects. The possibility of out destruction looms everywhere; and human suffering, however enormous, seems to be nothing but a passing accident, a byproduct of the presence of sentient creatures in a world that merely tolerates them for a short time. (Di Muzio 9) This understanding of human insignificance plays a vital role in the theistic belief that despite human fragility, purpose and significance are achievable within the most tragic circumstances. Wolf’s recognition of our insignificance implies our need to look beyond our own lives for meaning. If a life of meaning depends upon recognizing the truth about our insignificance and continuing to be â€Å"actively engaged in a project of positive value†, and one cannot perform these projects due to tragic circumstances, then within Wolf’s reasoning their life can not have meaning. Wolf’s understanding of meaning depends upon individual human performance. In trying times of suffering, whether great or small, this concept of looking outside of ones own circumstances is hard to accomplish and in some circumstances impossible, thus in such cases meaning cannot be unachieved. The theistic view of ultimate significance provides a hope that a life of suffering can have meaning and purpose too in that, â€Å"the idea of God and hope for immortality can help us look again at the world and our fragile lives as meaningful†(Di Muzio 9). The project of participating in God’s divine plan is the only project that has lasting and unwavering value for meaning in lives. Wolf’s central argument concerning meaning in lives provides many logically convincing and sound points. However, Wolf’s definition of a life of meaning is both disconnected from her original argument and lacks a consistent, authoritative source and process for achieving meaning. She attempts to suggest that meaning is an â€Å"intelligible feature to be sought in life†, then provides the solution for achieving this insight of through the unintelligible source of epiphany. Secondly, Wolf’s argument for the realization of insignificance as the truth, unlocks the need for an individual to look beyond serving his or her own self-centered desires for meaning. However, though her point about insignificance seems valid, Wolf fails to provide examples or an understanding of how an individual can objectively determine how to look outside of themselves. In total, Wolf produces an understanding of meaning that depends upon an individuals abilities to undergo an epiphany and properly manifest their understanding of the need to look outside one’s self and recognize Universal needs. The problem with this stance is that focusing on the Universe provides no lasting impact, or meaning to a particular life because the things of this Universe are finite and temporary. The individual’s life will eventually end along with the actions and events they affected. Though existence can provide an opportunity for value, as understood in Wolf’s argument and the theistic view, meaning is dependent upon a infinite being whose performance can not be temporary. An individual must not be reliant on their personal performances and finite experiences to obtain meaning, but rather is actively engaged in an eternal project of positive value, determined by an infinite and constant authority, God. Works Cited Borchert, Donald M. Theism. Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 2nd ed. 10. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Web. 25 Apr 2012. Di Muzio, Gianluca. Theism and the Meaning of Life life’s meaning? Ars Disputandi . 6. (2006): 1-12. Print. Klemke, E. D. â€Å"The Meaning of Life†. 2nd. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000. Print. Metz, Thaddeus. â€Å"Could God’s purpose be the source of life’s meaning? † Cambridge Journals. (2000): 293-311. Print. Wolf, Susan. The Meaning Of Lives. 62-73. Print.